Pre-Conference Workshops

Date: August 26, 2026
Time: 09:00 – 13:00
Room: TBC
Organised by:

Valeria Epelbaum, University of Amsterdam, Netherlands
Derek de Beurs, University of Amsterdam, Netherlands

Background

Suicide is a complex phenomenon, shaped by interacting biological, psychological, and social factors. While traditional research often isolates single risk factors (e.g. perceived burdensomeness), effective prevention requires a more complex, systems-level perspective to capture how these influences interact over time. Framing suicide as a dynamic system of feedback processes, rather than a static list of predictors, is crucial for understanding the interplay between ideation, planning, and (non-)fatal outcomes. This perspective also highlights critical transition points, enabling more precise and effective interventions.

Method

This session aims to collaboratively develop a causal loop diagram (CLD) to understand the transition from suicidal ideation to suicide attempt within a systems framework. CLDs provide a structured way to capture this system perspective by mapping key factors and the feedback loops connecting them, thus making explicit how clinical, social, and contextual influences interact. This approach could uncover vicious cycles, and pinpoint opportunities for interventions.

The CLD-building exercise addresses the challenge of distilling diverse expert knowledge into a coherent systems framework, offering several benefits:

• It can illustrate hidden feedbacks, such as how suicidal ideation may lead to social withdrawal, which reduces perceived social support, further escalating ideation: a reinforcing loop that can drive a suicidal crisis.
• Enable experts to incorporate intermediate variables. For example, rather than connecting substance abuse directly to suicidal ideation, an intermediate factor like impulsivity can be introduced.
• Facilitates exploration of functional forms of links. For example, the effect of impulsivity on suicidal ideation might be modeled linearly or as a tipping point, where beyond a critical threshold ideation accelerates rapidly.

Implication for suicide prevention practice

For suicide prevention experts, participating in this process allows for:

• Fostering theory building, by combining knowledge from researchers, practitioners and individuals with lived experience.
• Systematically exposing gaps, which could be used to guide research priorities and data collection.
• Creating a collective, shared visual framework that can inform clinical practice, policymaking and computational modeling.

The workshop

The proposed session will draw on the best practices to develop an annotated CLD (Crielaard et al. 2024). Experts will contribute their knowledge systematically, annotate causal links, discuss uncertainty of connections, and co-create a model aligning with the complexity perspective (de Beurs et al. 2021).

References

Crielaard, L. et al. (2024). Refining the causal loop diagram: A tutorial for maximizing the contribution of domain expertise in computational system dynamics modeling. Psychological Methods, 29(1), 169.

De Beurs, D. et al. (2021). A network perspective on suicidal behavior: Understanding suicidality as a complex system.Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 51(1), 115–126.

Wittenborn, A. K. et al. (2015). Depression as a systemic syndrome: Mapping the feedback loops of major depressive disorder. Psychological Medicine, 46(3), 551–562.

Date: August 26, 2026
Time: 09:00 – 12:00
Room: TBC
Organised by:

Remco de Winter, Mental Health Institute Rivierduinen, the Netherlands

Learning Objectives

• You will understand the necessity of subtyping suicidality for clinical practice.
• You will learn to work with a differentiation model for suicidality.
• You will be able to recognize subtypes, reason about potential overlaps, and understand how the SUICIDI instrument can be applied in such cases.

Background

Suicide remains one of the most concerning outcomes in mental health care. However, suicidality is a frequent phenomenon in clinical practice, particularly during psychiatric emergency services[1], while actual suicides are relatively rare. Suicidality is a complex and heterogeneous concept, and reliable prognostic tools are currently lacking.

In practice, distinctions between different forms of suicidality are often made, yet the scientific understanding of these distinctions is limited. Drawing from historical, clinical, and scientific experience we have developed a differentiation model for suicidality [2-4]. This model has been validated in clinical practice [4] and refined further following a successful replication study (de Winter, submitted).

The differentiation model provides a structured framework to guide clinical decision-making. It categorizes suicidality into four distinct subtypes:

• Perceptual Disintegration (PD)
• Primary Depressive Cognition (PDC)
• Psychosocial Turmoil (PT)
• Inadequate Communication/Coping (IC)

This model offers practical tools to better address suicidality in clinical practice, including a more systematic approach to shared treatment responsibilities among clinicians. Training in this model can help clinicians gain practical skills and greater confidence in managing suicidality within various clinical settings.

Format session plan

Introduction to the Model

• Explanation of the differentiation model for suicidality.

Review of the SUICIDI Instrument

• Overview and practical applications of the tool.

Training and Application

• Participants will receive hands-on training in using the model and the SUICIDI instrument.
• Distribution of relevant literature, resources, and the SUICIDI tool.
• Practical exercises, including case studies and video material from films, to enhance real-world applicability.

Outcomes

By the end of the workshop, participants will be better equipped to identify and manage various forms of suicidality in clinical practice.

References

1. de Winter RFP, Hazewinkel MC, van de Sande R, de Beurs DP, de Groot MH: Outreach Psychiatric Emergency Service. Crisis 2020, 41(5):375-382.

2. de Winter RFP, Meijer C, Kool N, de Groot MH: Differentiation of Suicidal Behavior in Clinical Practice. In: Suicide Risk Assessment and Prevention. Edited by Pompili M. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2022: 219-236.

3. de Winter RFP, Meijer CM, Enterman JH, Kool-Goudzwaard N, Gemen M, van den Bos AT, Steentjes D, van Son GE, Hazewinkel MC, de Beurs DP, de Groot MH: A Clinical Model for the Differentiation of Suicidality: Protocol for a Usability Study of the Proposed Model. JMIR Research Protocols 2023, 12:e45438.

4. de Winter RFP, Meijer CM, van den Bos AT, Kool-Goudzwaard N, Enterman JH, Gemen MAML, Nuij C, Hazewinkel MC, Steentjes D, van Son GE et al: A first study on the usability and feasibility of four subtypes of suicidality in emergency mental health care. BMC Psychiatry 2023, 23(1):878.

Date: August 26, 2026
Time: 09:00 – 13:00
Room: TBC
Organised by:

Mishara Brian, Université du Québec à Montréal, Canada

Workshop Objectives

• Summarize what we know about the nature of frequent callers to suicide prevention helplines, how their calls are handled, and outcomes for frequent callers;
• Present, based upon recent empirical research, recommendations about how to better help frequent callers to helplines;
• Discuss practical and ethical challenges for the development and implementation of helpline policies for frequent callers, and options for their resolution;
• Demonstrate in participatory exercises the application of recommended intervention methods.

Background

Helplines worldwide have some callers who call quite frequently, some occupy so much time that other callers may be unable to get through to a counselor and obtain help. Therapeutic gains from frequent calling has been questioned, and several specific recommendations have been made as to how to best help them, while respecting capacity issues that limit the availability of counselors to take all their calls.

Workshop content

After discussing definitions of frequent callers, we will summarize the results of a systematic review, conducted in 2020 and updated in 2025-2026, of all identified research on frequent callers and recommendations on how to help them, including how to reduce the frequency of their calls. We identified 10 suggestions to better manage and help frequent callers that merit validation.

We then present the results of three recent complementary studies of the recordings of all calls during one month from all individuals who called the USA National Suicide Prevention Lifeline (988) at least 30 times the preceding month:

• We analysed the call content of the first and last calls of the month, coding caller and counselor behaviors and emotions in detail, focusing on identifying counselor behaviours and characteristics associated with more positive call outcome.s
• We associated post-call surveys on appreciation of the call with the information coded.
• We conducted qualitative assessments of all calls during the month from a random sample of 24 callers(up to 20 per caller).

We will present our recommendations for helpline policies for helping frequent callers, and the skills needed to best respond to them over the telephone and by text-SMS/chat.

We will discuss ethical challenges for helpline policies for frequent callers and options for their resolution.

Attendees will be invited to participate in exercises to develop some skills that are part of our recommandations:

• Focusing on a person’s strengths while listening to repeated complaints
• Building hope in seemingly hopeless situation

Concluding discussions will provide an opportunity to discuss the merits of alternative approaches and practical issues, as well as share concerns, challenges and potential solutions.

Date: August 26, 2026
Time: 09:00 – 13:00
Room: TBC
Organised by:

Sue Murray, Zero Suicide Institute of Australasia, Australia
Sally Thomas, Sally Spencer-Thomas LLC, USA

Workshop Overview

Workers across many industries are at increased risk for suicide. While safety frameworks like Zero Suicide have advanced care systems for communities in some sectors, workforce well-being and organisational culture change often remain overlooked.

This interactive workshop integrates the evidence-informed H.O.P.E. Certification with the transformative principles of a restorative, just and learning culture. Participants explore moving from blame-oriented responses to forward-looking accountability centred on healing, learning and trust. The workshop highlights incorporating lived experience safely and ethically into workplace strategies to foster cultures of psychological safety and authentic engagement.

Learning Objectives

Participants will:

• Understand how suicide risk shows up in diverse industries including healthcare, construction and first responders.
• Explore the H.O.P.E. Certification framework for strengthening workforce suicide prevention.
• Apply principles of restorative, just and learning culture and psychological safety to real-world scenarios.
• Develop practical strategies for integrating lived experience and trauma-informed practices into suicide prevention.
• Leave with an actionable roadmap to improve workplace safety, trust, and healing opportunities.

Session Plan

1. Setting the Context

• Overview of suicide risk factors across high-stress industries and the limitations of punitive or compliance-based workplace responses.
• Introduction to restorative just culture and its alignment with Zero Suicide values.
• The role of lived experience as a catalyst for culture change—why inclusion is essential, not optional.

2. Systems Mapping and Barriers

• Group discussion: Identify systemic stressors (e.g., moral injury, toxic leadership, isolation) and cultural barriers (e.g., stigma, fear of disclosure) that impact mental health and suicide risk.
• Brainstorm protective factors, including peer allyship, ethical leadership, transparency, and culturally relevant supports.

3. Restorative Just Culture in Practice

• Small group case study: Apply restorative justice principles (moral engagement, emotional healing, reintegration, organisational learning) to a suicide-related workplace incident, with specific attention to how impacted individuals—including those with lived experience—are supported and engaged.
• Group share-out: Reflect on how restorative approaches could shift culture and prevent future harm.

4. H.O.P.E. Certification as a Tool for Transformation

• Overview of the H.O.P.E. Certification framework and how it embeds suicide prevention, psychological safety, and workforce well-being into organisational systems.
• Showcase of real-world examples, including how organisations have meaningfully involved people with lived experience in planning, training, storytelling, and peer support.

5. Action Planning: Culture Change Through Lived Experience Leadership

• Small group breakout: Envision an ideal culture where peer allies and people with lived/living experience are integrated into suicide prevention strategy and response.
• Identify opportunities for co-design (e.g., advisory councils, curriculum development, postvention planning) and peer roles (e.g., ambassadors, first responders, wellness champions).
• Begin drafting an implementation plan using tools from the Restorative Just Culture workbook and H.O.P.E. Certification roadmap.

Interactive Elements

• Case study analysis using a restorative justice lens
• Visioning and culture mapping activities
• Group brainstorming on protective practices and barriers
• Use of the Restorative Just Culture checklist and action planning templates

Outcome

Participants will leave equipped to:

• Champion forward-looking accountability and healing after suicide-related incidents.
• Integrate the H.O.P.E. Certification as a systems-change tool.
• Plan for the Restorative Just and Learning Culture approach to foster safer, more compassionate and more resilient healthcare organisations.

Date: August 26, 2026
Time: 09:00 – 13:00
Room: TBC
Organised by:

Gun Woo Victor Park, Seoul National University Hospital, South Korea
Carola Claus, Ruhr-Universität, Germany

Previous research has identified media reporting on suicide as a powerful environmental exposure that can influence suicidal behavior at the population level. Depending on how suicide is portrayed, media coverage may either increase suicide risk through harmful reporting practices, known as the Werther effect, or contribute to suicide prevention by presenting constructive coping strategies and alternatives to suicidal behavior, known as the Papageno effect.

An important cornerstone of national and international prevention strategies in this context is the implementation of suicide reporting media guidelines. Although many countries have established media recommendations, their structure, terminology, and level of specificity vary substantially across regions. The World Health Organization (WHO) offers a global foundation; however, its principles must be operationalized into measurable elements before they can be empirically evaluated or integrated into monitoring systems.

This workshop addresses this methodological gap by guiding participants through the full process of translating qualitative reporting principles into standardized, codable elements that can support cross-national research and surveillance efforts.

The session opens with a conceptual introduction to operationalization in the context of media effects and public mental health. Using the Korean suicide reporting recommendations as an illustrative case, the opening segment demonstrates how high-level directives—such as avoiding harmful details, ensuring helpful signposting, or providing context—can be broken down into actionable components. This section does not promote Korean guidelines as a normative model; rather, it provides a worked example that shows how any national guideline can be decomposed into measurable units suitable for empirical evaluation.

Building on this grounding example, facilitators will present a construct-based coding framework of suicide reporting violation items (P1–P7), derived from a structured review of the WHO recommendations and national guidelines. In small groups, participants will apply these constructs to real-world news excerpts and examine them against their own national guidelines, identifying areas of overlap, divergence, and unique cultural or systemic elements. The exercise emphasizes the practical challenges of coding, including ambiguous wording, cultural variation, and differences in journalistic conventions.

This collaborative work forms the starting point of a preliminary International Suicide Reporting Construct Framework, which will be further developed after the workshop through an international Delphi process, to which participants will be invited as expert panelists.

To demonstrate how human-defined constructs can support modern monitoring systems, facilitators will share the results of applying the framework to German-language media, including a prototype of an automated classification system anchored in the expert-defined constructs. The focus is on demonstrating how expert-validated constructs can anchor automated systems and reduce the risk of misclassification, rather than on training participants in AI methods.

The workshop concludes with a synthesis of lessons learned and guidance on how participants can adapt the framework to their own countries for research, policy evaluation, and real-time monitoring. Participants will leave with a practical toolkit for evaluating suicide reporting in their local media and a shared conceptual structure that supports cross-national collaboration in suicide prevention research.

Aim of the workshop

The aim of this workshop is to provide delegates with the knowledge and practical skills to translate suicide reporting guidelines into standardized, codable constructs that support cross-national media monitoring and automated surveillance of reporting quality.

Preparation

Participants are encouraged to bring a copy (digital or print) of their national suicide reporting guidelines, where available. No further preparation is required.

Learning objectives

Participants will gain increased knowledge and understanding of:

1. Operationalizing qualitative suicide reporting guidelines (WHO and national) into transparent, measurable, and reproducible coding constructs.

2. Applying a construct-based coding framework (P1–P7) to real-world news articles, including the adjudication of ambiguous and culturally specific cases.

3. Understanding how expert-validated constructs can anchor automated media monitoring systems, illustrated by a Korea–Germany application and a classification prototype.

Workshop programme (09:00–13:00)

Part 1 (09:00–10:45)

• Background and introduction to the initiative.

• Review of suicide reporting violation constructs (P1–P7): development process and results.

• Subgroup review (groups of 4–5): critical appraisal of each construct against participants’ national guidelines, identifying overlap, divergence, and culturally specific elements.

• Plenary feedback and coordination: consolidating group input into the preliminary framework.

10:45–11:05 – Coffee break

Part 2 (11:05–13:00)

• Application to German-language media: labeling results and discussion (Carola Claus).

• Automated classification system prototype: results and discussion.

• Hands-on labeling exercise (groups of 4–5): participants code sample news articles using the constructs.

• Group discussion and adjudication with coordinators: resolving ambiguous and culturally specific cases.

• Synthesis: adapting the framework to participants’ own countries.

• Q&A and conclusions.

Date: August 26, 2026
Time: 09:00 – 13:00
Room: TBC
Organised by:

Johanna Gustavsson, Karlstads universitet, Sweden
Anna Baran, Karlstads universitet, Sweden
Victoria Lönnfjord, Karlstads universitet, Sweden

Despite robust scientific evidence supporting the effectiveness of education in suicide prevention, a significant gap persists within higher education: few academic programs provide comprehensive training in this critical area. To address these challenges, the ELLIPSE Resilience Enhancement (ERE) project will pilot and evaluate interactive and innovative teaching tools, including gamification elements and a prototype of the safety plan application. To ensure broad accessibility, the course will be delivered online, although maintaining engagement in distance education remains a critical design consideration. The safety plan—originally developed for post-suicide attempt interventions—has been adapted to encompass everyday strategies such as stress management.

During the workshop, participants will:

• engage with a prototype of the safety plan application and the pedagogical tools developed for the course.
• test them in small groups.
• provide feedback via mobile devices and Mentimeter surveys.

By convening experts in suicide prevention to share insights and evaluate these tools, the project aims to advance knowledge and practice in higher education. Furthermore, participants will gain hands-on experience assessing innovative educational resources, thereby contributing to the refinement of scalable suicide prevention training solutions.

The ERE, co-funded by the European Union (Project ID: 2025-1-SE01-KA220-HED-000364668; duration: 01 September 2025 – 31 August 2027), seeks to address the educational deficit by designing a scalable, sustainable, and innovative curriculum that incorporates a safety plan to strengthen knowledge and skills across academic communities. The project is coordinated by Karlstad University (Sweden) and implemented through a consortium of academic institutions and organisations from six European countries—Poland, Spain, Lithuania, Ukraine, Belgium, and Germany.

Its overarching objective is to enhance resilience within higher education by developing a comprehensive suicide prevention curriculum.

Specific aims include:

• Conducting a large-scale needs assessment to identify gaps and priorities.
• Developing an online course focused on communication strategies and safety planning.
• Advocating for the integration of suicide prevention into university curricula and national policy frameworks.

In addition, the project promotes collaboration with Ukrainian higher education institutions to co-create sustainable, inclusive, and needs-informed educational resources tailored to academic settings. By leveraging digital learning tools, the initiative seeks to strengthen crisis response capacity and equip students with practical skills for suicide prevention.

The pedagogical approach targets all students in higher education, preparing them to support peers and future colleagues during periods of crisis while fostering personal resilience.

However, integrating suicide prevention into academic curricula presents notable challenges. It competes with other educational priorities, and delivering such training to students outside clinical programs introduces additional complexity.

Karlstad University brings extensive expertise in developing gamified learning environments, and together in this workshop, we will explore the pedagogical challenges of suicide prevention education.

Date: August 26, 2026
Time: 10:00 – 13:00
Room: TBC
Organised by:

Ella Arensman, University College Cork & National Suicide Research Foundation, Ireland
Paul Corcoran, National Suicide Research Foundation & School of Public Health, University College Cork, Ireland
Eve Griffin, National Suicide Research Foundation & School of Public Health, University College Cork, Ireland
Martin Ryan, Health Service Executive, Ireland
Donagh Hennebry, Health Service Executive, Ireland
Karl Andriessen, University of Melbourne, Australia

The public health prevention model of suicide prevention begins with and relies heavily on surveillance data. Monitoring a public health phenomenon such as suicide requires continuous, systematic data collection, analysis and interpretation, as well as efficient dissemination of outputs to those involved in prevention efforts. However, the process of verification, registration and classification of external causes of death, including suicides in Ireland can involve a time span several months to more than two years, depending on the death registration system (medical, forensic, legal).

Having access to a real-time suicide surveillance system, the outputs of which can be measured against national statistics office data once published, will assist in early identification of emerging suicide clusters and a timely response to people affected by suicide, and verification of anecdotal evidence and public statements on suicide that are disseminated via media outlets, including social media.

The World Health Organization has endorsed the value of real-time surveillance frameworks for mental health conditions, including suicide, and highlights the need for reliable data to inform decision-making, to determine matters requiring immediate action, and to verify if and where progress has been made. The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals echo this concept through target 3.4, which aims to reduce premature mortality from non-communicable diseases by one-third by 2030. This target identifies the suicide mortality rate per 100,000 people as an indicator of progress and relies on timely monitoring of suicide rates internationally to assess the efficacy of prevention strategies.

The aim of this workshop is to provide delegates with knowledge and skills to establish and maintain real-time suicide surveillance systems.

The workshop will address comparative real-time suicide surveillance components, including:

• terminology and definitions
• inclusion and exclusion criteria
• cases ascertainment
• core and optional data items
• data protection and ethics
• primary and secondary data sources
• validation
• dissemination and reporting to relevant stakeholders

The workshop will also address comparative real-time suicide surveillance practices, including:

• governance structures
• timing of case submission
• data system infrastructure and IT
• data quality assurance
• assessment of sensitivity and specificity

Examples will be provided of real-time suicide surveillance systems in legal/coronial, medical and community-based settings.

Workshop delegates will be involved in discussing barriers and facilitating factors in establishing real-time suicide surveillance systems in different settings and taking into consideration resources and cultural factors.

Learning objectives

Increased knowledge and understanding of:

• Establishing and maintaining real-time suicide surveillance systems, including standardisation via Standard Operating Procedures and implementation science.
• Mechanisms to improve the accuracy and completeness of real-time suicide mortality data.
• The benefits of real-time suicide surveillance data for early identification of suicide clusters and specific suicide prevention measures.

Workshop programme: 10.00–13.00

10.00–11.30 – Part 1

• Background and introduction
• Overview of real-time suicide surveillance in different settings
• Subgroup discussion about barriers and facilitators in establishing real-time suicide surveillance and plenary feedback

11.30–11.50 – Coffee break

11.50–13.00 – Part 2

• Real-time suicide surveillance systems – Standard Operating Procedures
• Subgroup discussion about benefits of real-time suicide surveillance systems for specific suicide prevention measures and plenary feedback
• Conclusions

Date: August 26, 2026
Time: 09:00 – 12:00
Room: TBC
Organised by:

Vita Poštuvan, University of Primorska, Slovenia
Thomas Niederkrotenthaler, Medical University of Vienna, Austria
Eve Griffin, National Suicide Research Foundation & School of Public Health, University College Cork, Ireland
Zrinka Laido, Estonian-Swedish Mental Health and Suicidology Institute (ERSI), Estonia & Wiener Werkstätte for Suicide Research, Austria;
Dolores Angela Castelli Dransart, HES-SO University of Applied Sciences and Arts Western Switzerland, School of Social Work, Switzerland

Partnership for Life

Partnership for Life is a global initiative to prevent suicide. Its aim is to establish an international collaboration of experts to support the development of a comprehensive, strategic approach to suicide prevention at the national level. It operates worldwide with regional subdivisions, including Europe.

Recently, developments in the European region have focused on analysing various national suicide prevention plans (situational analysis). Additionally, professional networking has developed around specific topics or interests.

The Partnership for Life event will focus on rethinking national strategies, practices, and frameworks following a suicide attempt, cases of death due to suicide, or after cases of assisted suicide or euthanasia. Participants will consider current needs and responses to these issues.

The event will include lectures and discussions on global and European practices for establishing or maintaining frameworks of care for the bereaved and people with lived experience of suicidal behaviour. An important aim will also be to discuss how these are incorporated into national suicide-related strategies.

Programme

09:00 – 09:20
Lecture 1
Topic: Models of postvention (bereavement)
Speaker: Eve Griffin

09:20 – 09:40
Lecture 2
Topic: Models of attempt aftercare
Speaker: Zrinka Laido

09:40 – 10:00
Lecture 3
Topic: Assisted dying: challenges in aftercare
Speaker: Castelli Dransart Dolores Angela

10:00 – 10:10
Discussion

10:10 – 10:20
Break

10:20 – 11:30
Workshop
Topic: How can good practices in postvention and aftercare be efficiently established for inclusion in national suicide-related strategies?
Moderator: Vita Poštuvan

11:30 – 12:00
Discussion and conclusion

Moderators: Thomas Niederkrotenthaler, Vita Poštuvan

Date: August 26, 2026
Time: 11:00 – 12:30
Room: TBC
Organised by:

Austėja Agnietė Čepulienė, Vilnius University, Lithuania

During the workshop “Cultural Resources in Suicidology: Working with Sutartinės,” I will invite participants to sing together UNESCO-recognized sutartinės (a specific genre of Lithuanian folk songs) and to reflect on this experience as a potential resource for us as suicidology researchers.

Suicidology is a field in which themes of death, grief, and psychological suffering are always present, often evoking complex emotions and, at times, personal or traumatic memories. I find cultural resources to be especially important in fostering resilience—both for myself as a researcher and practicing psychologist, and for others who may need it.

Why sutartinės? This unique Lithuanian polyphonic singing tradition—where two to four voices perform different melodies simultaneously—embodies the idea of sutarti, meaning “to agree.” It offers a lived experience of holding difference while remaining in authentic connection, a process known in psychology to be deeply restorative.

In a field such as suicidology, where themes of grief, suffering, and trauma are ever-present, such experiences may support researcher resilience. In addition, the archaic, often archetypal lyrics of sutartinės reflect fundamental patterns of human experience.

In this workshop, participants will engage with these songs as cultural and psychological resources, exploring the personal meanings and inner processes they evoke.